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• are used and the level of activities undertaken. Whether or way to ensure that policy goals are translated into results is to not desired outcomes have been achieved, however, is often allocate budgetary resources to achieve specific objectives determined by public perceptions or changes in public defined in the planning stages. The budget process is also behavior. For some programs, the impact may not be seen connected to the management function in that, by until years into the future. As an example, one of the goals appropriating funding, managers are given authority to of secondary education is to prepare graduates to enter the implement programs and are held accountable for results. workforce or go on toAgher levels of education; hence, an ..r appropriate outcome measure is percentage of graduates - gainfully employed or continuing their education within two Budgeting years of graduation. To determine whether this objective has • been successfully met, program administrators would need to track graduates' progress after they have left the secondary education system. Measuring outcomes may therefore require more time - consuming and costly processes such as survey analysis, and could also involve efforts to follow A Paformance program beneficiaries long after they have left the program. Despite these obstacles, state and local governments are Planning Mp g nr increasingly recognizing the importance of making greater . use of performance measures in all aspects of public administration: planning, management, and budgeting. . Performance measures are routinely reported (often as part of It is important that an explicit effort be made to integrate budget requests) or used in program management in a performance measures into all three administrative growing number of jurisdictions. A survey undertaken by functions, and not be the focus of only one administrative the International City Management Association (ICMA) in activity. For example, proposals to develop and regularly 1988, to which 451 jurisdictions responded (42 percent of report performance measures in government financial those receiving the survey), found a dramatic increase in the statements will fail to lead to any meaningful change in the • use of performance measures between 1976 and 1988. In provision of public services unless planning and budgeting 1988, 70 percent of the respondents indicated they were processes also support the achievement of service objectives. using some type of performance measures, up from Using performance measures only in financial reporting approximately 30 percent in 1976. [Streib, 1989] A 1991 directs managers' attention to a narrow range of issues — survey conducted by the National Association of State • that is, indicators and trends — without considering whether Budget Officers (NASBO) found that 34 states reported or not agreement on goals has been reached and sufficient performance measures as part of their budget requests, and resources allocated. The budget provides the necessary most states required agencies proposing new programs to linkages to ensure that performance is integrated into all submit productivity and effectiveness measures. [Lee, 1991] government activities. In the planning phase, this linkage Clearly, governments understand the value of measuring helps to ensure that programs are prioritized and realistic performance, and are striving to overcome impediments in goals and objectives are established in a inanner consistent order to make greater use of these measures in decision with expected funding. The budget can also supply making appropriate incentives and sanctions to ensue that programs are carried out as intended in the management phase. Linking Planning, Management, and Budgeting Experiences in Allocating Resources Based on Performance. The pivotal role played by the budget process As noted- earlier, performance objectives are more likely to be in meeting performance objectives has long been recognized. _ • achieved if the planning, management, and budgeting Unfortunately, major budgetary reform initiatives over the functions are closely tied. In this way, all administrative past century attempting to create stronger ties between functions are working toward common purposes. The program objectives and the budget process have failed to lead budget process is the key to creating this linkage. In their • to a significant overhaul of budgetary practices. In book Reinventing Government. David Osborne and Ted particular, efforts such as Planning - Programming- Budgeting Gaebler argue, "...in government, the most important lever — (PPB) and zero base budgeting collapsed in part because they the system that drives behavior most powerfully — is the were overly complex and time consuming, and also because - budget." [Osborne and Gaebler, 1992] The most effective they were not adaptable to political realities. 5 .